Spotlight on Japanese Philosophy
Kyoto School
The Kyoto School has become most well known, especially in the West, for its philosophies of religion. Indeed the initial reception of the Kyoto School in North America in particular took place in university departments of Religious Studies, where their philosophies of religion have frequently been viewed as representative of Mahāyāna Buddhism, specifically of the latter’s Zen and Shin (True Pure Land) schools.[2] While the exchange on these terms has been fruitful, this view can be misleading in two respects. First of all, even if, for most of the Kyoto School thinkers, a philosophy of religion is the ultimate arche and telos of their thought, it is hardly their sole concern. They address a full array of philosophical issues: metaphysics, ontology, epistemology, logic, philosophical anthropology, philosophy of history, philosophy of culture, philosophy of language, ethics, political theory, philosophy of art, etc.
Secondly, even when their focus is on the philosophy of religion, they approach this topic in a non-dogmatic and often surprisingly non-sectarian manner, drawing on and reinterpreting, for example, Christian sources along with Buddhist ones. Even Nishitani, who did in fact come to identify his thought with “the standpoint of Zen,” adamantly refused the label of a “natural theologian of Zen.” He claimed that: “If I have frequently had occasion to deal with the standpoints of Buddhism, and particularly Zen Buddhism, the fundamental reason is that [the original form of reality and the original countenance of human being] seem to me to appear there most plainly and unmistakably” (NKC X, 288; Nishitani 1982, 261).
Kyoto School philosophy, therefore, should be understood neither as Buddhist thought forced into Western garb, nor as universal discourse (which the West happened to have invented or discovered) dressed up in Japanese garb. Rather, it is best understood as a set of unique contributions from the perspective of modern Japan—that is, from a Japan that remains substantially determined by its historical layers of traditional culture at the same time as being decisively conditioned by its most recent layer of contact with the West—to a nascent worldwide dialogue of cross-cultural philosophy.
1. Davis, Bret W., "The Kyoto School", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Summer 2019 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), URL = <https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2019/entries/kyoto-school/>.
ProQuest Japense Philosophy (Current Research)
Overview of Japanese Philosophy
Japanese philosophers have historically interacted intensively with a multitude of philosophies outside their native boundaries—most prominently Chinese, Indian, Korean, and Western. So they have benefited from a rich trove of ideas and theories on which to draw in developing their own distinctive philosophical perspectives. As a result Japanese philosophers have always been acutely attuned to the intimate relations among culture, ways of thinking, and philosophical world views. An island chain twice as distant from its continental neighbors as Britain is to its own, Japan escaped successful foreign invasion until 1945. Accordingly, it largely negotiated its own cultural, including philosophical, development without an alien power forcibly imposing on the archipelago its own religious world view or philosophical theories. The early twentieth-century academic philosophers in Japan, for example, were so well educated in the world’s texts and theories, many in the original languages, that they were among the most internationally informed philosophers of their time.
Without foreign ideas being coerced on them, Japanese thinkers had the luxury of alternatives outside the binary of simple wholehearted acceptance or utter rejection. New theories from abroad could be tried and, if need be, experimentally modified before making a final decision about endorsement. Sometimes a foreign philosophy might be seen as supplying raw material to be fashioned to serve ongoing native philosophical enterprises. In other cases a new philosophy might be imported whole cloth to either supplement or supplant a home system of thought. Because of those circumstances, Japanese philosophers acquired skill in analyzing foreign ideas by examining the cultural assumptions behind them to determine their potential implications if they were to be adopted into their own culture.
1. Kasulis, Thomas, "Japanese Philosophy", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Summer 2019 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), URL = <https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2019/entries/japanese-philosophy/>.
Introductory and In-Depth Material
- Introduction: What Is Japanese Philosophy?
This introduction examines the meaning of “Japanese philosophy.” Rather than searching for an unchanging essence, it begins by looking at the ways this locution and its Japanese counterpart, Nihon tetsugaku, have been used in English and in Japanese. Furthermore, it engages in the critical and constructive project of suggesting why some usages are more problematic and others more compelling. Attention is given to the disputed question of whether some discourses of traditional Japanese “thought” should be called “philosophy,” as well as to the myriad and contested ways in which “philosophy” has been defined in the Western tradition. After discussing some generalizations that can be made about the nature of Japanese philosophy, the question of what it means to qualify a type of philosophy as “Japanese” is addressed. In the end, it is argued that “Japanese philosophy” is best understood as mainly a subset of “philosophy in Japan,” a subset which includes any rigorous thinking about fundamental issues that draws sufficiently and significantly on the intellectual, linguistic, cultural, religious, literary, and artistic sources of the porous and ever-developing Japanese tradition. - European Journal of Japanese Philosophy
The European Journal of Japanese Philosophy (EJJP) is a peer-reviewed academic journal published annually in the fall by Chisokudō Publications on behalf of the European Network of Japanese Philosophy (ENOJP). Its aim is to provide a forum for critical articles and translations related to Japanese philosophy. It is the first multi-lingual journal in Europe that makes the philosophical resources available in the intellectual history of Japan accessible to the international academic audience. Contributions have been so far made in English, French, German, Italian, Portuguese, Romanian, Spanish, and Japanese. The editorial board is slowly expanding the list of available European languages for publication with a view to culturally diverse studies of Japanese philosophy in Europe and beyond. - Asian PhilosophyAsian Philosophy is an international journal concerned with such philosophical traditions as Indian, Chinese, Japanese, Buddhist and Islamic. The purpose of the journal is to bring these rich and varied traditions to a worldwide academic audience. It publishes articles in the central philosophical areas of metaphysics, philosophy of mind, epistemology, logic, moral and social philosophy, as well as in applied philosophical areas such as aesthetics and jurisprudence. It also publishes articles comparing Eastern and Western philosophical traditions.
- Japanese Philosophy (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)
This article explains Japanese philosophy in five sections. Section 1 considers how Japanese have traditionally understood philosophy to be a Way (michi) of engaging reality rather than a detached method for studying it. The next section lists some patterns of analysis that are hallmarks of that Way of Japanese philosophizing. Section 3 identifies five distinguishable traditions having had a major impact on Japanese philosophy, explaining a few central ideas from each. Section 4 surveys how those five traditions have evolved and interacted over four major periods of Japanese history from ancient times to the present. Section 5 concludes with a few themes given special emphasis in Japanese philosophy that might be provocative to philosophy at large. - Japanese philosophyDiscusses how one can isolate a few axiological orientations that have seemed to persist or recur throughout the history of Japanese thought. First, there has been a tendency to emphasize immanence over transcendence in defining spirituality. Second, contextual pragmatism has generally won out over attempts to establish universal principles that apply to all situations. Third, reason has often been combined with affect as the basis of knowledge or insight. Fourth, theory is seldom formulated in isolation from a praxis used to learn the theory. Fifth, although textual authority has often been important, it has not been as singular in its focus as in many other cultures. Thus, the Japanese have not typically identified a single text such as the Bible, the Analects, the Qur’an or the Bhagavad Gītā as foundational to their culture. Although there have been exceptions to these general orientations, they do nonetheless help define the broader cultural backdrop against which the drama of Japanese philosophy has been played out through history.
Philosophy As Metanoetics by Call Number: B5244.T34 T29 1986ISBN: 0520054903Publication Date: 1987A milestone in Japan's post-war philosophical thought and a dramatic turning point in Tanabe's own philosophy, "Philosophy as Metanoetics" calls for nothing less than a complete and radical rethinking of the philosophical task itself. It is a powerful, original work, showing vast erudition in all areas of both Eastern and Western thought.
The Kyoto School by Call Number: OnlineISBN: 9781438445434Publication Date: 2013This book provides a much-needed introduction to the Kyoto School of Japanese philosophy. Robert E. Carter focuses on four influential Japanese philosophers: the three most important members of the Kyoto School (Nishida Kitarō, Tanabe Hajime, and Nishitani Keiji), and a fourth (Watsuji Tetsurō), who was, at most, an associate member of the school. Each of these thinkers wrestled systematically with the Eastern idea of "nothingness," albeit from very different perspectives. Many Western scholars, students, and serious general readers are intrigued by this school of thought, which reflects Japan's engagement with the West. A number of works by various thinkers associated with the Kyoto School are now available in English, but these works are often difficult to grasp for those not already well-versed in the philosophical and historical context. Carter's book provides an accessible yet substantive introduction to the school and offers an East-West dialogue that enriches our understanding of Japanese thought while also shedding light on our own assumptions, habits of thought, and prejudices.
Japanese and Continental Philosophy by Call Number: OnlineISBN: 0253355443Publication Date: 2011Recognizing the importance of the Kyoto School and its influence on philosophy, politics, religion, and Asian studies, Japanese and Continental Philosophy initiates a conversation between Japanese and Western philosophers. The essays in this cross-cultural volume put Kyoto School thinkers in conversation with German Idealism, Nietzsche, phenomenology, and other figures and schools of the continental tradition such as Levinas and Irigaray. Set in the context of global philosophy, this volume offers critical, innovative, and productive dialogue between some of the most influential philosophical figures from East and West.
Nothingness in Asian Philosophy by Call Number: OnlineISBN: 0415829437Publication Date: 2014A variety of crucial and still most relevant ideas about nothingness or emptiness have gained profound philosophical prominence in the history and development of a number of South and East Asian traditions--including in Buddhism, Daoism, Neo-Confucianism, Hinduism, Korean philosophy, and the Japanese Kyoto School. These traditions share the insight that in order to explain both the great mysteries and mundane facts about our experience, ideas of "nothingness" must play a primary role. This collection of essays brings together the work of twenty of the world's prominent scholars of Hindu, Buddhist, Daoist, Neo-Confucian, Japanese and Korean thought to illuminate fascinating philosophical conceptualizations of "nothingness" in both classical and modern Asian traditions. The unique collection offers new work from accomplished scholars and provides a coherent, panoramic view of the most significant ways that "nothingness" plays crucial roles in Asian philosophy. It includes both traditional and contemporary formulations, sometimes putting Asian traditions into dialogue with one another and sometimes with classical and modern Western thought. The result is a book of immense value for students and researchers in Asian and comparative philosophy.
History of Japanese Philosophy
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History of Japanese Philosophy Introduction |
Japanese Philosophy has historically been a fusion of both foreign (particularly Chinese and Western) and uniquely Japanese elements.
In its literary forms, Japanese philosophy began about fourteen centuries ago. Confucianism entered Japan from China around the 5th Century A.D., as did Buddhism. Neo-Confucianism became most prominent in Japan in the 16th Century. Also since the 16th Century, certain indigenous ideas of loyalty and honor developed within the Japanese samurai or warrior class were integrated. Western philosophy has had its major impact in Japan only since the middle of the 19th Century.
However, in all of these cases, the philosophies were not imported wholesale; rather, they were adapted, and selectively adopted.
| History and Major Schools |
Shinto is the native religion of Japan and, up until the Second World War, its state religion. It is a type of polytheistic animism, and involves the worship of kami (or spirits). It can be traced back to the earliest natives of Japan, although it was significantly modified by the arrival of Buddhism in the 6th Century. Shinto has no binding set of dogma, and the most important elements are a great love and reverence for nature in all its forms, respect for tradition and the family, physical cleanliness and matsuri (or festivals dedicated to the kami). Shinto is not a philosophy as such, but has greatly influenced all other philosophies in their Japanese interpretations.
Buddhism definitively entered Japan (from its native India, via China and Korea) in A.D. 550. Each major period after that - the Nara period (up to 784), the Heian period (794–1185) and the post-Heian period (1185 onwards) - saw the introduction of new doctrines and upheavals in existing schools. The three main schools of Japanese Buddhism are:
- Zen Buddhism:
Zen, as a distinct school of Buddhism, was first documented in China in the 7th Century A.D., where it was established as an amalgamation of various currents in Indian Mahayana Buddhist thought. It subsequently spread southwards to Vietnam and eastwards to Korea and then Japan. Although the Japanese had known Zen-like practices for centuries (Taoism and Shinto), it was not introduced as a separate school until the 12th Century. It asserts that all sentient beings possess a Buddha-nature, a nature of inherent wisdom and virtue, which lies hidden in the depths of their minds. Zen practitioners attempt to discover this Buddha-nature within themselves, through meditation and mindfulness of daily experiences. Zen sitting meditation, (such as the lotus, half-lotus, Burmese or seiza postures) is known as zazen. The schools of Zen that currently exist in Japan are Soto (largest), Rinzai (split into several sub-schools) and Obaku (smallest). - Pure Land (or Amidist) Buddhism:
Pure Land is a broad branch of Mahayana Buddhism and currently one of the most popular schools of Buddhism in East Asia, along with Zen. It is a devotional or "faith"-oriented branch of Buddhism focused on Amitabha Buddha. Pure Land Buddhism teaches that through devotion to just Amitabha, one will be reborn in the Pure Land in which enlightenment is guaranteed. In medieval Japan it was also popular among those on the outskirts of society, such as prostitutes and social outcasts, who were often denied spiritual services by society but could still find some form of religious practice through worshipping Amitabha. - Nichiren Buddhism:
Nichiren Buddhism is a branch of Buddhism based on the teachings of the 13th Century Japanese monk Nichiren (1222–1282). It focuses on the Lotus Sutra and an attendant belief that all people have an innate Buddha-nature and are therefore inherently capable of attaining enlightenment in their current form and present lifetime. It was particularly popular among the merchants of Kyoto in Japan's Middle Ages, and among some ultranationalists during the pre-World War II era, and has something of a reputation for missionary zeal and strident pushes to convert others.
Two other religions that were brought into Japan from mainland China are Confucianism and Taoism. According to early Japanese writings, Confucianism was introduced to Japan via Korea in the year 285 A.D. Some of the most important Confucian principles are humanity, loyalty, morality and consideration on an individual and political level. Taoism spread to Japan in the 7th century. For more than 1,000 years, these religions have had a significant impact on Japan's society. The rules of Confucianism in particular have had major influence on ethical and political philosophy, especially during the 6th to 9th Centuries and later after Meiji Restoration of 1868.
| Modern Era |
Later, Chinese Neo-Confucianism also made its way into Japan, where it became ascendant during the Edo (or Tokugawa) period (1603 - 1868). Japanese Neo-Confucians such as Hayashi Razan and Arai Hakuseki were instrumental in the formulation of Japan's dominant early modern political philosophy.
Kokugaku was a school of Japanese philology (the study of ancient literature and the origins of language) and philosophy originating during the Edo period. Kokugaku scholars tended to relativize the study of Chinese and Buddhist texts and favored philological research into the early Japanese classics.
Mitogaku refers to a 17th Century school of Japanese historical and Shinto studies, originally commissioned to compile the History of Great Japan in a Neo-Confucianist context, based on the view that historical development followed moral laws. Around the end of the 18th Century, Mitogaku expanded its remit to address contemporary social and political issues, based on Confucianist and kokugaku thought, and eventually became one of the driving forces behind the Meiji Restoration of 1868.
The Kyoto School is the name given to a 20th Century Japanese philosophical movement centered at Kyoto University that assimilated Western philosophy and religious ideas and used them to reformulate religious and moral insights unique to the East Asian cultural tradition.
1. Japanese philosophy. Japanese Philosophy - General - The Basics of Philosophy. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.philosophybasics.com/general_eastern_japanese.html#:~:text=Japanese%20Philosophy%20has%20historically%20been,Century%20A.D.%2C%20as%20did%20Buddhism.
